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<h1 class="article-header__title js-article-title js-page-title">Les droits de l’homme ont-ils commencé avec la Torah?</h1>
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<span class="article-header__byline" data-kid="15900" data-author-bio="Berman, Joshua"><a title="Browse more articles by Berman, Joshua" href="/search/keyword_cdo/kid/15900/jewish/Berman-Joshua.htm">par Joshua Berman</a></span>
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<div class="co_body article-body cf"><section> </section><section><h2>Question :</h2> <p>Mon fils est rentré de l’école avec des documents issus d’un cours consacré aux origines de la démocratie et des droits de l’homme. Tout y est rattaché à des penseurs comme John Locke, puis l’on opère un grand saut en arrière vers les stoïciens et Athènes. Où, nous Juifs, nous situons-nous dans ce tableau ?</p>
</section><section><h2>Réponse :</h2> <p>La <span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="35052">Torah</span> est le berceau des idées modernes d’égalité. De fait, à son époque, la <a href="/library/article_cdo/aid/5538423/jewish/Quest-ce-que-la-Torah.htm" title="Qu’est-ce que la Torah ?">Torah</a> constitua un ouvrage révolutionnaire de pensée politique.</p>
<p>Dans l’ensemble du monde antique, une vérité allait de soi : tous les hommes ne naissent pas égaux. On était ce que notre naissance dictait : roi, noble ou serf. Une société ordonnée était celle dans laquelle chacun connaissait sa place. Comme l’exprimait Aristote dans l’Athènes (supposément) démocratique, la justice signifiait que « les égaux doivent être traités comme des égaux, et les inégaux comme des inégaux ».</p>
<p>Il est frappant de constater que les récits de la <a href="/library/article_cdo/aid/1426382/jewish/Torah.htm" title="What Is the Torah?">Torah</a>, et plus encore ses lois, ont systématiquement refaçonné ces normes et institutions antiques, donnant lieu à une société qui décourageait la hiérarchie et la stratification, et conférant pouvoir et dignité aux citoyens.</p>
<p>Prenons, par exemple, les lois économiques énoncées par la Torah. Ailleurs, la terre appartenait au roi et aux temples, tandis que le peuple travaillait comme serfs ou esclaves. Dans la Torah, en revanche, D.ieu – propriétaire ultime de la terre – la confie aux Enfants d’Israël. Chaque Israélite est propriétaire foncier (Lévitique 25), ce qui signifie que chacun dispose d’une source de subsistance. Cela constitue le tout premier exemple historique de propriété foncière privée universelle entre les mains des citoyens.</p>
<p>Considérons la question de la remise des dettes. Dans d’autres cultures, un roi annulait les dettes lors de sa première année de règne, précisément lorsqu’il avait besoin d’un capital politique accru : il s’attirait ainsi la faveur des masses, tout en affaiblissant les riches prêteurs, seuls véritablement en mesure de le défier. Une telle annulation des dettes correspond d’ailleurs au sens grec originel des mots modernes « amnistie » et « philanthropie ». L’historien grec Plutarque rapporte que lorsque le souverain spartiate Agis chercha à instaurer une remise des dettes, la mesure fut perçue par ses détracteurs comme une simple manœuvre à la Robin des Bois : « En offrant aux pauvres les biens des riches, et par la redistribution des terres et la remise des dettes, il [s’achetait] une vaste garde personnelle, mais non de véritables citoyens pour Sparte. »</p>
<p>Agis ne faisait que suivre la pratique courante des dirigeants de l’Antiquité. Dans ce contexte, considérons le programme de remise des dettes prescrit par la Torah : l’annulation des dettes y intervient automatiquement tous les sept ans. Elle cesse d’être l’outil politique d’un nouveau monarque ; elle devient un droit du citoyen ordinaire (Deutéronome 15).</p>
<p>La Torah révolutionna également la fiscalité. Ailleurs, les impôts ou dîmes servaient à entretenir le palais et les temples. La Torah introduit un nouveau type d’impôt : un prélèvement payé par les agriculteurs afin de soutenir les plus démunis – le premier impôt redistributif de l’histoire à finalité sociale (Deutéronome 14).</p>
<p>Mais rien, peut-être, n’était aussi radical que la conception biblique de la fonction politique. Un bref détour par l’histoire constitutionnelle permet d’éclairer ce point. Pensons au système parlementaire britannique, avec sa Chambre des Lords et sa Chambre des Communes. L’idée était de diviser le pouvoir législatif afin que les deux chambres se contrebalancent. Ce qui heurte, aujourd’hui encore, la sensibilité américaine, c’est que les Britanniques estimaient que la meilleure manière d’y parvenir consistait à tirer parti des distinctions de classe existantes, et même à les entériner, en répartissant le pouvoir politique selon ces lignes mêmes.</p>
<p>L’histoire des gouvernements mixtes, où plusieurs instances se partagent le pouvoir, est très ancienne. Mais, de tout temps, le principe fut identique : identifier les classes concurrentes au sein de la société et attribuer à chacune une part du pouvoir. Ce n’est qu’avec les Pères fondateurs américains qu’émerge une conception nouvelle de la fonction politique : une charge publique qui existe indépendamment de toute référence à la classe sociale, et à laquelle tout citoyen peut prétendre.</p>
<p>Cette conception, véritablement révolutionnaire, de la fonction politique ne connaît qu’un seul précédent : la Torah. Tout citoyen peut être choisi comme juge (Deutéronome 16). De fait, la Torah ne décrit pas le processus de désignation des juges, si ce n’est pour préciser que le peuple – ce « toi » collectif – doit les choisir parmi lui-même. Cela est d’autant plus significatif que le monarque lui-même était soumis à la loi. Les « anciens » et les « juges » que l’on rencontre tout au long de la Bible – puis dans la Michna – formaient un véritable parlement, du peuple et pour le peuple. En pratique, beaucoup étaient issus de foyers modestes et vivaient de travaux manuels ou d’artisanat.</p>
<p>S’agissant du monarque, la Torah précise que le peuple n’aura un roi sur lui que s’il en prend lui-même l’initiative (Deutéronome 17,14 ; cf. I <span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="34089">Samuel</span> 8). Jusqu’à ce que <span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="35331">David</span> soit choisi comme roi, tout citoyen pouvait être choisi (Deutéronome 17). Et même par la suite, les droits héréditaires demeuraient conditionnés au fait que le roi trouvât grâce aux yeux de D.ieu et à ceux du peuple. Tel demeure aujourd’hui encore le principe dans la <span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="32404">halakha</span> : le futur roi davidique ne sera considéré comme légitime que s’il parvient à rallier le peuple autour de lui (Maïmonide, <i>Lois des rois</i> 11,4-5).</p>
<p>La Bible ne désigne par ailleurs aucune instance spécifique chargée de choisir le roi. Là encore, comme pour les juges, cette mission est confiée au « toi » collectif de tout Israël ; l’ensemble de la citoyenneté doit être représenté dans le choix de ses dirigeants. D.ieu doit également donner Son approbation au candidat, par l’intermédiaire du prophète. Conceptuellement, toutefois, le choix appartenait bien au peuple, comme on le voit dans le récit de l’onction de Saül par le prophète <span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="34118">Samuel</span>.</p>
<p>Cette révolution égalitaire se manifeste également dans la conception biblique des moyens de communication. Nous comprenons aujourd’hui combien la maîtrise de l’informatique est décisive pour réduire les écarts de savoir et de pouvoir, et nous sommes reconnaissants de vivre dans une culture qui s’emploie à l’encourager. Nous comprenons aussi pourquoi les dictatures les plus sombres font si peu pour promouvoir une telle maîtrise : instruire les masses, c’est leur donner du pouvoir.</p>
<p>La Torah est entrée dans le monde bien avant l’ère numérique, mais elle a su tirer parti, de manière remarquable, d’un moyen de communication d’une puissance comparable : l’alphabet. Ailleurs, les systèmes d’écriture – tels les hiéroglyphes en Égypte – étaient extrêmement complexes et exigeaient de longues années d’apprentissage. Les scribes qui y parvenaient se voyaient assurer une vie aisée, en raison des compétences particulières qu’ils détenaient. Un poème égyptien ancien rapporte même les exhortations d’un père à son fils pour qu’il fréquente l’école des scribes, lui promettant ainsi une place dans la haute société : « Tu aimeras l’école des scribes plus que ta propre mère », lui assure-t-il.</p>
<p>La Torah, en revanche, fut rédigée au moyen de l’alphabet – que chacun peut apprendre – et elle est le premier texte du monde antique à suggérer qu’il soit copié et diffusé auprès du peuple (Exode 24 ; Deutéronome 31). La Torah ne craignait pas l’accès des Israélites à la lecture et à l’écriture, car elle visait à former une citoyenneté ennoblie et autonome.</p>
<p>Il ne fait aucun doute que l’obligation d’enseigner aux enfants les commandements et les enseignements de la Torah (Deutéronome 6,7) fut grandement facilitée par le fait que la Torah était écrite dans une écriture facile à apprendre. La Bible fut le tout premier document jamais rédigé à l’intention du grand public en écriture alphabétique.</p>
<p>Peut-être nulle part ailleurs la Torah n’a-t-elle autant révolutionné le statut de la personne ordinaire que dans sa conception du statut des femmes. Dans la littérature narrative de l’Antiquité proche-orientale, les femmes n’occupent que deux rôles : satisfaire les désirs des hommes ou les tenter. C’est dans la Torah que nous rencontrons pour la première fois des femmes comme <span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="35303">Sarah</span>, Rébecca, Myriam et Yokhéved, reconnues pour leur ardeur au travail, leur discernement, leur courage et leur sensibilité spirituelle. Pour la première fois dans l’histoire de la littérature occidentale, les femmes sont des personnes à part entière.</p>
<p>Qu’en est-il alors de l’esclavage ? Il est vrai que la Torah emploie l’expression <i>eved ivri</i>, souvent traduite à tort par « esclave hébreu ». Le mot <i>eved</i>, dans la Bible, peut désigner le service d’un haut dignitaire envers son roi, ou même celui de Moïse envers le Tout-Puissant. La relation qualifiée par la Torah de <i>eved ivri</i> est un moyen d’aider les endettés à sortir de l’insolvabilité dans des conditions favorables, leur permettant de se relever sans porter de stigmate durable.<!--Quant à l’esclave non-juif, voir <a href="/xxx">La Torah, l’esclavage et les Juifs</a>.--></p>
<p>Il est vrai que seuls les fils d’<span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="34821">Aaron</span> pouvaient devenir <i><span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="33094">kohanim</span></i>. Mais là encore, la Torah a profondément redéfini ce que signifiait la prêtrise. Dans l’Antiquité proche-orientale, la prêtrise s’accompagnait de privilèges faisant des prêtres une élite puissante. Dans la Torah, en revanche, les prêtres ne constituent ni une classe économique ni une classe politique. Ils ne disposent d’aucun privilège particulier devant la loi ni d’aucun pouvoir politique.</p>
<p>La Torah veille à ce que les prêtres servent le peuple, et non l’inverse. Ailleurs, les prêtres étaient de grands propriétaires fonciers qui contrôlaient l’ensemble des biens de l’État (voir Genèse 48). Dans la Torah, les <i><a href="/library/article_cdo/aid/762109/jewish/Raise-Your-Hand-If-Youre-A-Kohen.htm" title="Raise Your Hand If You’re A Kohen">kohanim</a></i> se voient expressément interdire la possession de terres productrices de revenus. Ailleurs encore, les lois du culte étaient jalousement gardées, et les simples citoyens se voyaient interdire l’accès au sanctuaire central. La Torah, au contraire, rend publiques toutes les lois du <span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="34471">Temple</span>, et les gens du peuple jouent un rôle essentiel et constant dans les rites du <a href="/library/article_cdo/aid/705757/jewish/Le-Saint-Temple.htm" title="Le Saint Temple">Temple</a>. Ailleurs, les prêtres sont décrits comme irréprochables ; la Torah, elle, souligne leur humanité et leur faillibilité. Pratiquement les seuls récits que nous possédons à propos des <i>kohanim</i> relatent comment Aaron fabriqua le veau d’or (Exode 32) et comment ses fils, <span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="35204">Nadav</span> et Avihou, outrepassèrent leurs limites dans le <span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="29463">Tabernacle</span> (Lévitique 10) – guère des histoires destinées à les glorifier.</p>
<p>Il n’est donc pas surprenant que la Bible, dans toute son étendue, ne connaisse aucun mot pour « noble », aucun mot pour « classe », et se dresse, sans précédent, comme le berceau de la pensée égalitaire.</p></section></div>
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<magen-article-credits byline="par Joshua Berman">
<div class="credit_text_item">Joshua Berman est professeur de Bible à l’Université Bar-Ilan. Il est l’auteur de <i>Created Equal: How the Bible Broke with Ancient Political Thought</i> (Oxford University Press, 2008), ouvrage finaliste en 2008 du National Jewish Book Award dans la catégorie “Essais et recherche”.</div>
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