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<h1 class="article-header__title js-article-title js-page-title">La Torah et le Talmud</h1>
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<h2 class="article-header__subtitle">Pourquoi faut-il une Torah Orale?</h2>
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<span class="article-header__byline" data-kid="193" data-author-bio="Freeman, Tzvi"><a title="Browse more articles by Freeman, Tzvi" href="/search/keyword_cdo/kid/193/jewish/Freeman-Tzvi.htm">par Tzvi Freeman</a></span>
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</section><section><h2>Question :</h2>
<p>Bon nombre – sinon la plupart – des coutumes et traditions qui constituent ce que l’on appelle le « judaïsme » ne sont explicitement énoncées nulle part dans la Bible. On les trouve plutôt consignées dans le <span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="33943">Talmud</span>, dont la compilation fut achevée vers le IVe siècle. Pourquoi ne pourrions-nous pas simplement suivre ce qui est écrit dans la <span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="35052">Torah</span>, telle qu’elle fut rédigée par Moïse ? Au fond, n’est-ce pas une hérésie que d’ajouter à la parole de D.ieu ?</p>
</section><section><h2>Réponse :</h2>
<p>Libre à vous de vous en tenir à votre propre compréhension littérale des Cinq Livres de Moïse, mais la vie risque de devenir quelque peu inconfortable. Pour commencer, il faudra lapider beaucoup de monde – pour des fautes comme la transgression du Chabbat, l’adultère, etc. Et beaucoup de dents et d’yeux risquent aussi de manquer à l’appel. Dites-moi aussi où vous avez prévu de sacrifier tous les moutons nécessaires pour expier les autres fautes. Il vous faudra également trouver un <i><span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="35109">kohen</span></i> disposé à recevoir toutes vos dîmes. Viennent ensuite toutes les lois d’impureté qui, si vous voulez vous en tenir à « ce qui est écrit », risquent de rendre le mariage assez compliqué aujourd’hui. Et vous devrez rester chez vous toute la journée, chaque <a href="/library/article_cdo/aid/487482/jewish/Le-Chabbat.htm" title="Le Chabbat">Chabbat</a> – dans le noir et dans le froid.</p>
<p>Ou bien vous pouvez suivre la lecture traditionnelle de la <a href="/library/article_cdo/aid/5538423/jewish/Quest-ce-que-la-Torah.htm" title="Qu’est-ce que la Torah ?">Torah</a>, celle qui comprend « œil pour œil » comme une compensation financière, et qui rend la condamnation à mort presque impossible à prononcer – et beaucoup plus humaine lorsqu’elle doit effectivement être appliquée. Les offrandes de moutons ne concernent que les époques où se dresse un <span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="34471">Temple</span> ; en attendant, d’autres moyens d’expiation sont à notre disposition. Les lois d’impureté rituelle, telles qu’elles s’appliquent aujourd’hui, sont tout à fait praticables, et peuvent même enrichir votre vie conjugale. Et vous pouvez rester dans une maison bien chauffée, ou sortir vous promener dans un parc le Chabbat. Tout cela en sachant que tel est bien le sens du texte, et qu’il l’a toujours été. Après tout, pensez-vous vraiment que <a href="/library/article_cdo/aid/1849908/jewish/Dieu.htm" title="Dieu">D.ieu</a> ait voulu que vous meniez une vie impossible ?</p>
<p>C’est peut-être pour cette raison que la <a href="/library/article_cdo/aid/1426382/jewish/Torah.htm" title="What Is the Torah?">Torah</a> elle-même nous a ordonné de soumettre tout cas difficile aux sages de notre époque, et de « ne pas s’écarter de la parole qu’ils t’énonceront, ni à droite ni à gauche »<a class="footnote_ref" href="javascript:doFootnote('1a7336565');" name="footnoteRef1a7336565">1</a> . Nous ne lisons pas le livre pour décider chacun de notre côté ce qu’il signifie ; nous suivons une tradition d’interprétation reçue. Et lorsqu’il faut étendre cette interprétation à de nouveaux cas, D.ieu Lui-même a donné à ces sages l’autorité de le faire. Ainsi, tout l’édifice se développe organiquement, dans la fidélité à son sens originel. Et ainsi, il existe une seule Torah pour tout le peuple.</p>
</section><section><h2>Texte et contexte</h2>
<p>Mais vous aurez alors sans doute une question plus grande encore : qui nous dit que notre interprétation est la bonne ? Et d’ailleurs, comment des êtres humains, aussi sages soient-ils, pourraient-ils avoir le droit d’interpréter la Torah de D.ieu ?</p>
<p>Cela poserait effectivement problème si l’on adoptait la version « Monsieur Tout-le-monde » des Cinq Livres de Moïse. Dans cette version, Moïse monte sur la montagne, trouve cinq livres, les rapporte et déclare au peuple : « Regardez donc ce que j’ai trouvé ! Nous ferions bien d’observer ce qui est écrit dans ces cinq livres, sinon gare à nous ! »</p>
<p>Autrement dit, si nous pensions que le texte n’a d’autre contexte que le fait que D.ieu a ordonné de l’observer, nous serions coincés avec ce que dit le texte, un point c’est tout. Mais la vérité est qu’il n’existe pas de texte sans contexte. Le contexte est au texte ce que l’eau est au poisson, la route à la voiture, et Internet au navigateur : sans contexte, le texte reste un texte, mais il n’a ni sens ni pertinence. Le contexte est ce qui donne vie au texte. Car c’est lui qui vous dit à quoi sert le texte, comment le lire et quoi en faire.</p>
<p>Les satires politiques, comme « Les Voyages de Gulliver » ou « La Ferme des animaux », sont de bons exemples de livres qui prennent un autre sens dès que l’on en connaît le contexte. Un journal intime ou une biographie écrite pour les membres d’une famille peuvent en fournir un autre exemple. Celui qui est de la maison ne lit pas la même histoire qu’un étranger qui y aurait seulement jeté un coup d’œil furtif.</p>
<p>Examinons donc le contexte qui se trouve derrière les Cinq Livres de Moïse. Heureusement pour nous, contrairement à <span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="32137">Jonathan</span> Swift et George Orwell, Moïse lui-même renvoie à une grande partie de ce contexte à l’intérieur du texte. Il nous donne même quelques indices sur la manière dont le livre fut rédigé. Après quarante ans d’errance, juste avant l’entrée dans le pays, Moïse dit au peuple : « Écoutez, je n’entre pas là-bas avec vous. Mais D.ieu m’a ordonné de mettre tout cela par écrit et de vous le remettre comme témoignage, afin que vous gardiez tout ce que je vous ai enseigné pendant ces quarante années. Le voici. Apprenez-le comme on apprend un chant. Enseignez-le à vos enfants, afin qu’ils l’enseignent à leurs propres enfants. Car tout ce dont vous aurez besoin jusqu’à la fin des temps s’y trouve. » C’est, en substance, le contenu du Deutéronome, connu dans la tradition juive sous le nom de <i>Michné Torah</i> – « la répétition de la Torah ».</p>
</section><section><h2>Imaginons la scène</h2>
<p>Imaginons maintenant la scène où nos ancêtres reçoivent un rouleau fraîchement écrit des livres de Moïse. Ils commencent à lire le récit de la Création, du Jardin d’Éden et du Déluge – des histoires qui leur étaient très familières, qu’ils avaient entendues de leurs grands-parents et de leurs arrière-grands-parents. Des récits qui existaient sans doute déjà dans des rouleaux plus anciens. Bien entendu, lorsqu’ils avaient entendu ces histoires, elles avaient été abondamment développées. C’est ainsi que l’on lisait les rouleaux à l’époque : on lisait un verset, puis on l’expliquait, on le développait, on élargissait le tableau, puis on lisait encore un peu et l’on expliquait de nouveau. Il allait donc de soi, pour Moïse, qu’ils feraient la même chose.</p>
<span><sl-divider size="large"></sl-divider><span class="pullquote">Imaginez nos ancêtres recevant ces rouleaux pour la première fois.</span><sl-divider size="large"></sl-divider></span>
<p>Nous possédons encore plusieurs exemples de ces commentaires suivis, appelés <i>targoumim</i>, qui étaient à l’origine récités oralement entre les versets. Certains, comme le Targoum <span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="32810">Onkelos</span>, restent assez proches du texte : ils présentent surtout le texte dans une autre langue, l’araméen, avec seulement quelques légers ajouts. D’autres, comme le Targoum Yonathan <span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="36764">ben</span> Ouziel, enrichissent souvent le récit de manière beaucoup plus abondante. Bien qu’ils n’aient été mis par écrit que bien plus tard, ils montrent que tel était le mode de lecture d’un texte dans l’Antiquité : on développait le texte au fil de sa lecture à voix haute.</p>
<p>Ils en arrivent aux récits de leurs lointains ancêtres, <span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="33331">Abraham</span> et <span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="35303">Sarah</span>. Quelqu’un s’écrie : « Eh ! Il manque l’histoire où Abraham brise les idoles dans la maison de son père ! » Un autre répond : « Dis, tu voulais qu’il écrive un rouleau de quelle taille ? Il a écrit les points essentiels et les choses que nous risquerions d’oublier. Mais cette histoire-là ? Personne ne l’oubliera jamais. »</p>
<p>Ainsi, lorsqu’ils lisaient cette partie du rouleau à leurs enfants, ils ajoutaient ce récit. Et, bien sûr, personne ne l’a jamais oublié.</p>
<p>Puis ils arrivent au récit qui les concerne eux-mêmes. Imaginez un peu : ils découvrent tout ce qu’ils ont vécu sous un autre angle, tel que D.ieu et Moïse l’ont vu se dérouler. Ils lisent le récit des plaies, à voix haute – toute lecture se faisait à voix haute jusqu’à l’époque moderne – et y ajoutent avec enthousiasme leurs propres souvenirs et leurs propres émotions, afin que l’histoire s’inscrive profondément dans l’esprit, le cœur et l’âme de leurs enfants. Souvent, ils pouvaient voir comment Moïse avait fait allusion à un détail absent par une nuance du texte ou par un mot supplémentaire.</p>
<p>Puis viennent les règles : ce qu’il faut faire et ce qu’il ne faut pas faire. Toutes les lois que Moïse avait enseignées à l’ensemble de la communauté pendant quarante ans. Les questions dont ils avaient débattu entre eux, celles que les anciens avaient passé des années à éclaircir. Jusqu’alors, chaque fois qu’un point restait obscur ou que son application était ambiguë, ils s’étaient tournés vers Moïse lui-même pour obtenir une clarification. Des milliers de cas avaient été résolus de cette manière. Josué, Éléazar, Ithamar, Pin’has, <span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="35364">Caleb</span> et bien d’autres anciens avaient vraisemblablement consigné les décisions rendues dans ces affaires et les avaient ensuite enseignées à leurs disciples.</p>
<p>Moïse écrit : « Préserve la sainteté du Chabbat. » Il n’a pas besoin de leur expliquer ce qu’est le Chabbat, quand il a lieu ni comment on l’observe. Tout le monde le sait. Ils l’enseigneront à leurs enfants lorsqu’ils liront le texte. Et, de toute façon, chacun grandira <i>en le pratiquant</i>. « Observez le Chabbat » – et pourquoi le faire –, c’est à peu près tout ce qu’il faut dire.</p>
<p>Il en va de même de « ils seront des <i>totafot</i> entre <span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="36832">tes</span> yeux ». Chacun sait de quoi il s’agit, tout comme chacun sait ce qu’il faut écrire sur les montants des portes de sa maison et comment faire les franges aux coins de ses vêtements. Il y aura toujours des Juifs pour mettre ces choses en pratique. Pendant environ un millénaire encore, il ne sera guère nécessaire d’en mettre davantage par écrit. Et là encore, ces disciples de Moïse s’émerveillent de voir combien les détails eux-mêmes sont tous subtilement indiqués dans les nuances du texte.</p>
<p>Mais considérez ceci : dès qu’il s’agit des lois relatives aux <i><span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="33094">kohanim</span></i> et au <a href="/library/article_cdo/aid/705757/jewish/Le-Saint-Temple.htm" title="Le Saint Temple">Temple</a>, ils trouvent devant eux une foule de détails. Combien de moutons, de quel âge, où, par qui, quand et comment. Ce sont-là, semble-t-il, des choses susceptibles d’être déformées. Les <i><a href="/library/article_cdo/aid/762109/jewish/Raise-Your-Hand-If-Youre-A-Kohen.htm" title="Raise Your Hand If You’re A Kohen">kohanim</a></i> pourraient un jour changer de direction et dire : « C’est comme cela qu’il faut faire. Qu’est-ce que vous en savez, vous ? » Il est donc logique que, sur ce point, le rouleau de Moïse entre dans les détails pratiques. Il en va de même pour le degré de précision des lois liées à la terre, comme les dîmes, l’année sabbatique et le jubilé. Même s’ils en avaient sûrement discuté longuement avec Moïse, ils n’avaient pas encore eu l’occasion de les mettre en pratique.</p>
<p>Il ne fait aucun doute que ces cinq livres ont dû, dès qu’ils furent disponibles, susciter une immense fascination – et un grand respect. Imaginez maintenant qu’au milieu de toute cette effervescence, un lettré un peu <span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="35834">trop</span> sûr de lui surgisse et débarque dans le campement juif, sur la rive orientale du Jourdain. Il demande à consulter ce rouleau et se met à donner sa propre interprétation. « Vous n’avez rien compris, déclare-t-il. Il n’est dit nulle part ici qu’Abraham a rencontré <span class="glossary_item" glossary_item="33727">Nimrod</span>. Les <i>totafot</i> ne sont pas des boîtiers de cuir. Et il est écrit clairement qu’on ne peut pas sortir de chez soi le Chabbat. »</p>
<span><sl-divider size="large"></sl-divider><span class="pullquote">Un lettré un peu trop sûr de lui surgit de nulle part, persuadé d’en savoir plus que tout le monde.</span><sl-divider size="large"></sl-divider></span>
<p>Si le peuple en avait la patience, il lui répondrait simplement : « Dites, monsieur, êtes-vous un descendant d’Abraham ? Étiez-vous là lorsque D.ieu parla à Moïse sur le mont Sinaï ? Avez-vous jamais rencontré Moïse et parlé avec lui ? »</p>
<p>C’est peut-être pour cela que l’on ne parle pas de « torahisme », mais de « juda-isme » : le mot lui-même renvoie aux Juifs. Car il ne s’agit pas d’une idéologie définie par un livre posé au sommet d’une montagne, mais d’un livre au sein du peuple juif. De fait, il existe une secte juive appelée les Karaïtes – <i>kara</i> signifiant « texte » –, qui rejette entièrement le concept de tradition reçue. Mais ce n’est pas ainsi que l’immense majorité de nos sages, au fil des générations, nous a compris. Ils ne nous voyaient pas comme « le peuple du livre », selon l’expression du Coran – un peuple défini par les contours bien délimités d’un livre –, mais exactement à l’inverse : comme un peuple dont l’existence même définit le sens du livre. Car le livre n’a de sens que dans le contexte de notre peuple, de notre expérience collective, et de la manière dont notre peuple a déployé et appliqué ce qu’il a reçu.</p>
</section><section><h2>Le non-livre</h2>
<p>En réalité, l’erreur fondamentale consiste à croire que la Torah est un livre. La Torah est la sagesse divine. Moïse, le plus grand de tous les prophètes, a accédé directement à cette sagesse. Le livre n’est qu’une des formes de sa manifestation : c’est ce que nous appelons « la Torah écrite ». Moïse a réussi à y encoder l’ensemble de cette sagesse, y compris ce que lui-même ne saisissait pas pleinement, un peu comme la double hélice d’un brin d’ADN encode toutes les caractéristiques d’un organisme entier.</p>
<p>Pourtant, avant d’être écrite, la Torah existait déjà dans notre monde sous la forme de l’enseignement de Moïse au peuple – en particulier aux anciens – et de leurs échanges avec lui. C’est ce que nous appelons « la Torah orale », qui, contrairement à une idée reçue, a précédé la Torah écrite. On peut donc dire, au sens propre, que la manifestation la plus complète de cette sagesse divine que nous appelons Torah ne se trouve pas dans la manière dont elle est écrite dans un livre, mais dans la manière dont elle existe dans l’esprit du peuple qui l’a reçue. Et puisque la Torah est un mode de vie pour toutes les époques, elle inclut toutes les discussions et toutes les innovations qui en ont émergé organiquement, à travers ce peuple, depuis 3 300 ans.</p>
<p>Après tout, une sagesse divine doit être donnée par un D.ieu qui transcende le temps et sait tout d’avance. Il nous a donné Sa Torah par l’intermédiaire de Moïse comme un jardinier plante une graine ou un forestier un jeune arbre ; mais à la différence de l’un et de l’autre, Il savait tout ce qui germerait et grandirait au cours de la vie de cet arbre. « Ils sont le rejeton que J’ai planté, dit-Il, l’œuvre de Mes mains dont Je tire gloire. » Comme un jardinier, Il plante la graine. Comme un artisan, Il façonne le produit final, étape après étape.</p>
<p>Jusqu’à ce que, lorsque Moïse nous mène enfin aux portes de la Terre Promise, toute la Torah se déploie en pleine floraison à travers l’effort du peuple qui l’a reçue, préservée et chérie. Car si le contexte est la terre et le texte la graine, alors le peuple juif est un champ fertile, le rouleau de la Torah une graine vivante, et la Torah elle-même la plantation, la croissance et les fruits d’un arbre de vie arrivé à maturité.</p></section></div>
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